How do we measure the impact of an innovation? By its environmental footprint? By improvements in efficiency? Or by its contribution to social well-being? The breakthroughs featured on our page this year combine many of these dimensions, which is precisely why they have earned a place in this round-up.

Here you will find everything from megaprojects involving tunnel boring machines to the quiet work of a mathematics student improving wind turbine efficiency; from eye-catching inventions such as self-cleaning glass that could boost the performance of photovoltaic panels, to a new generation of green concrete paving the way for more sustainable construction. And plenty more besides.

State-of-the-art machines designed to operate in different types of ground — even in flooded conditions — showed that construction technology continues to advance, quite literally, at full speed. In this article, we explored the different types of tunnel boring machines (TBMs) and the major projects putting them to the test, such as São Paulo’s Metro Line 6, which will connect some of the city’s most disadvantaged neighbourhoods with the city centre.

This year was not only about drilling tunnels to improve urban connectivity and make everyday life easier. Construction processes also continued to embrace new sustainable materials, including green concrete. This article serves as a small bible on the latest types of concrete and the projects already using them, such as the Port of Cádiz. And yes, we also explain exactly what clinker is and why it matters.

Concrete was not the only sustainable material in the spotlight. One of the oldest materials in human architecture found new ways to reinvent itself. We are talking about clay, and a new impact-printing system capable of producing partition walls at remarkable speed. The explanation — and the video — can be found in this article.

From construction, we move to energy. This year, many wind farms reached retirement age after decades of service. In this article on wind energy repowering, we paid tribute to those veteran turbines as they made way for a new generation of more efficient equipment. Generating more power with fewer units makes it possible to optimise space within wind farms and unlock new uses, among other benefits.

Efficiency gains in wind energy did not come only from larger turbines, but also from elegant mathematical solutions. One such breakthrough came from an aerospace engineering student at Penn State University. Divya Tyagi found a way to optimise the Glauert formula, long considered canonical in wind turbine design.

Renewable energy does not only translate into wind or solar power. It also underpins alternative systems such as green hydrogen, which is set to transform heavy industry as well as vehicles of all kinds — cars, aircraft and even ships. We explored the latter in an article dedicated to offshore hydrogen refuelling stations that could allow vessels to refuel without polluting. In short: sustainable maritime transport.

Including a curated list of technologies within a round-up of articles is a little meta, but the subject matter more than justifies it. Carbon capture, photocatalytic paints that purify the air, and bacteria used to clean water are just some of the solutions covered in this article, which looks at protecting the environment across land, sea and air.

And since we are already in meta territory, here is another compilation — this time focused on the latest technologies used to prevent wildfires. We looked at drones, artificial intelligence and new sensor systems that help fight — and prevent — increasingly destructive fires as extreme weather events linked to climate change become more frequent.

In video games, “Easter eggs” are hidden surprises that break away from the main narrative and appear in unexpected places. You can think of this final section as one of those. It is not an innovation as such, but a reflection that does not need its own heading.

We cannot and should not end the year without talking about artificial intelligence, but it is approached here from a different angle: reflecting on its influence on how we express ourselves and even how we think. Because, as stated at the beginning, technological advances are ultimately defined by their impact.